that studies environmental harms and crimes,
encompassing a wide range of issues beyond
traditional criminal law. It focuses on the harms
caused to the environment, non-human animals,
and humans through environmental degradation,
including issues like wildlife trafficking, pollution,
and deforestation. Green criminology also
examines the role of power structures, including
corporations and states, in perpetrating or
contributing to environmental harm. It prioritizes
understanding the consequences of actions that
negatively impact the environment, ecosystems,
and non-human animals Green criminology draws
on various disciplines, including sociology, law,
political science, and environmental studies, to
analyze environmental issues
of environmental harms, including both those
explicitly defined as crimes and those that
cause significant ecological damage, even if not
formally criminalized It often questions existing
power structures and legal frameworks,
examining how they contribute to or fail to
address environmental harm Green criminology
recognizes that environmental harms
disproportionately affect marginalize
communities and seeks to address issues of
equity and justice. Wildlife trafficking: The illegal
trade of endangered species and their parts.
Deforestation: The clearing of forests for
various purposes, often driven by economic
interests. Harvesting timber for construction,
paper production, and other uses is another
significant factor
the world, it's useful to understand the net change in forest
cover. The net change in forest cover measures any
in forest cover — either through natural forest expansion
or afforestation through tree planting — minus deforestation.
This map shows the net change in forest cover across the
world. Countries with a positive change (shown in green) are
gaining forests faster than they're losing them. Countries with
a negative change (shown in red) are losing more than they're
able to restore. Since the end of the last ice age — 10,000
years ago — the world has lost one-third of its forests.2 Two
billion hectares of forest — an area twice the size of the
United States — has been cleared to grow crops, raise livestock,
and for use as fuelwood. Previously, we looked at this change
in global forests over the long run. What this showed was that
although humans have been deforesting the planet for millennia,
the rate of forest loss accelerated rapidly in the last few centuries.
Half of the global forest loss occurred between 8,000 BCE and
1900; the other half was lost in the last century alone.
let’s zoom in on the last 300 years. The world
lost 1.5 billion hectares of forest over that
period. That’s an area 1.5 times the size of the
United States. In the chart, we see the decadal
losses and gains in global forest cover. On the
horizontal axis, we have time, spanning from
1700 to 2020; on the vertical axis, we have the
decadal change in forest cover. The taller the
bar, the larger the change in forest area. This
is measured in hectares; one hectare is
equivalent to 10,000 m. Forest loss measures
the net change in forest cover: the loss in
forests due to deforestation plus any increase
in forest through afforestation or natural
expansion Unfortunately, there is no single
source that provides consistent and transparent
data on deforestation rates over this period
of time . Methodologies change over time,
Earth.Org Mining and resource extraction refers
to the process of extracting valuable geological
materials from the Earth's crust, including both
solid minerals and fossil fuels. This extraction is
crucial for obtaining many materials necessary
for modern society, but it also carries significant
environmental and social impacts. Mining involves
extracting a wide range of materials, including
metallic ores (like iron, copper, gold), non-metallic
minerals (like limestone, salt, potash), and energy
resources (like coal, oil, and natural gas) Mining
techniques vary depending on the type and location
of the resource. Surface mining (e.g., open pit, strip
mining) is used for deposits near the surface, while
subsurface mining (e.g., shaft mining) is employed
for deeper deposits Mining activities can lead to
significant environmental damage, including
deforestation, soil erosion, water pollution (acid
mine drainage), and habitat destruction
consequences, such as displacement of communities,
health issues related to exposure to mining materials,
and unequal distribution of wealth generated from
mining operations Economic considerations: Mining
provides raw materials for various industries and
can be a significant source of revenue for nations and
individuals Resource sustainability:Given the non-
renewable nature of many mined resources
, sustainable mining practices and responsible
resource management are crucial foruture generations
Waste management:Mining produces large amounts
of waste rock and tailings, which require careful
management to prevent environmental contamination
Regulations:Mining operations are often subject to
government regulations aimed at minimizing
environmental damage and ensuring worker safety
Unsustainable resource extraction can cause
environmental damages such as water pollution, soil
contamination, erosion and disruption of local
ecosystems, as well as social damages such as worker
raising animals to produce food, fiber, and other
essential products. It's a fundamental part of
human civilization, providing the basis for stable
communities and societal development. Agriculture
encompasses a wide range of activities, from
traditional farming to modern, technologically
advanced practices This includes growing crops like
grains, fruits, vegetables, and other plants for food
and other uses This involves breeding and managing
livestock such as cattle, sheep, pigs, and poultry for
meat, dairy, eggs, and other product The primary
purpose of agriculture is to produce food for human
consumption, including staple crops, fruits, vegetables,
and animal product Agriculture also provides raw
materials like cotton, flax, wool, and lumber for
various industries Modern agriculture faces challenges
related to sustainability, including environmental impact
(greenhouse gas emissions, water pollution)
and biodiversity loss
technologies and practices aimed at improving
efficiency, productivity, and sustainability
Agriculture is a key component of complex global
food systems that involve production, processing,
distribution, and consumption Agriculture is a
significant economic sector, providing livelihoods
for millions of people worldwide Agriculture has a
profound social impact, shaping human
settlements, lifestyles, and cultural practices
Agriculture can pose health and safety risks to
workers, including musculoskeletal injuries, respiratory issues, and exposure to zoonotic
diseases. The development of agriculture allowed
for the growth of human populations and the rise
of settled communities and civilization Early
civilizations often developed along major river
systems due to the fertile land and water
resources Key innovations like the plow
Foundation Climate change refers to long-term
shifts in temperature and weather patterns,
primarily driven by human activities since the mid
-1800s. These activities, like burning fossil fuels,
release greenhouse gases (like carbon dioxide
and methane) into the atmosphere, trapping heat
and causing global warming. This warming leads
to changes in weather patterns, including more
extreme weather events, rising sea levels, and
disruptions to ecosystems. Climate change isn't
just about short-term weather fluctuations. It's
about the overall, long-term trends in temperature,
rainfall, and other weather conditions While
natural factors like volcanic eruptions can cause
climate change, the current warming trend is
largely attributed to human activities Burning
fossil fuels (coal, oil, and gas) releases greenhouse
gases that trap heat in the atmosphere, causing
the planet to warm
climates, including dry (hot and dry climate with
little vegetation), tropical (wet and hot climate
with monsoon seasons), polar (cold and dry
climate year-long, in tundra areas, there can be
plenty of wildlife and vegetation), mild (warm
summers and mild winters), and ...The Köppen
climate classification divides Earth climates into
five main climate groups, with each group being
divided based on patterns of seasonal
precipitation and temperature. The five main
groups are A (tropical), B (arid), C (temperate),
D (continental), and E (polar).
Climate risks can be categorised into natural
environment, infrastructure, human health, the
built environment, business and international.
The IPCC Sixth Assessment Report considers
risks within important sectors affected by
climate change, like agriculture, water, cities
, ecosystems, health and livelihoods.
natural movement and distribution of water on Earth
due to human activities and climate change. This
disruption can manifest in various ways, including
changes in precipitation patterns, increased frequency
and intensity of extreme weather events, and shifts
in water availability. The consequences can be severe,
impacting ecosystems, agriculture, and human
populations. Rising global temperatures lead to
increased evaporation, altering precipitation patterns
and causing more intense rainfall and droughts
Deforestation, urbanization, and unsustainable
water management practices disrupt the natural
water cycle, affecting water storage, runoff, and
groundwater recharge
extreme weather events like floods and
droughts, causing significant damage and
loss of life Changes in rainfall patterns
and increased evaporation can lead to
water shortages in some regions while
causing flooding in others Alterations in the
water cycle can affect plant growth, animal
habitats, and overall ecosystem health
Rising temperatures cause glaciers and
ice caps to melt at an accelerated rate,
impacting freshwater availability for millions
of people, particularly in regions like the
Himalayas and the Andes Melting glaciers
and altered precipitation patterns can lead
to changes in river flows, affecting water
availability for agriculture, industry,
and human consumption
that all people have access to enough safe and
nutritious food to meet their dietary needs and
preferences for an active and healthy life. This involves
not only having enough food available but also the
physical and economic means to access it. It's a
complex issue with global and local dimensions,
encompassing factors like food production,
supply chains, affordability, and safety. This refers
to the overall supply of food on a global scale,
considering factors like production, trade, and
sustainability.UK Food Supply:This focuses on the
UK's sources of food, both domestic production and
imports, and the resilience of those supply chains.
the infrastructure (physical, human, and
economic) that supports the food supply
chain and how well it can withstand disruptions Food Security at Household
Level:This looks at whether individuals and
households have the means to access
sufficient, healthy, and affordable food.Food
Safety and Consumer Confidence:Thi involves
ensuring food is safe, authentic, and meets
quality standards, as well as public
perceptions of food safety
especially in status, rights, and opportunities. It can manifest
in various forms, including income inequality,
wealth inequality, and inequality of opportunity. Income
inequality refers to how evenly income is distributed within
a population, while wealth inequality focuses on the
distribution of assets. Inequality of opportunity examines
the impact of circumstances like family background or social
factors on an individual's prospects. Income inequality
measures the disparity in how income is distributed among
individuals or households within a population The Gini
coefficient is a common measure, ranging from 0
(perfect equality) to 100% (perfect inequality)Another
measure, the Palma ratio, compares the income share of
the richest 10% to the poorest 40%
in the distribution of assets, such as property,
savings, and investments, among individualsor
households UK Example:In the UK, wealth inequality
is more pronounced than income inequality, with
the top 10%holding a significantly largershare of
wealth than the bottom 50%UK Statistics:The Office
for National Statistics indicates that the top fifth
of the population holds 63% of the wealth, while
the bottom fifth holds only 0.5%Inequality of
opportunity examines how factors like socioeconomic
background, gender, ethnicity, and other circumstances
influence an individual's life chances and access
to resources Impact:This type of inequality can
significantly affect an individual's ability to achieve
social mobility and economic advancement
estimated 68.3 million people at mid-year 2023.
This represents a 1.0% increase since mid-2022.
The growth is primarily driven by net international
migration, though there are variations between the
different countries of the UK. Projections suggest
the population will continue to grow, potentially
reaching 72.5 million by mid-2032. Current
Population: The UK's population is estimated at
68.3 million as of mid-2023Growth Rate: The population
increased by 1.0% between mid-2022 and mid-2023
Regional Differences: England and Wales saw slightly
faster growth (1.0%) compared to Scotland (0.8%)
and Northern Ireland (0.5%)Migration's Role:
Net international migration is the main driver
of population increase across all UK countries
Statistics (ONS) projects the UK population
to reach 72.5 million by mid-2032, an
increase of 4.9 million. This growth is largely
attributed to migrationBirths and Deaths
: While the UK overall experienced more
deaths than births (16,300 more deaths), this
was not the case in all countries, with
England and Northern Ireland experiencing
more births than deaths Town records have
kept track of the overall population each
year. The current population for 2017 is
300,000 people. Back in 1980, the population
was only 150,000 people. So, the total change
in population size since 1980 is 150,000 people.
where there are clashes between opposing forces,
leading to disruption and insecurity. This can
manifest as armed conflict, political instability, or
societal disagreements with potential for violence.
This involves a substantial increase in armed violence
due to political insecurity or civil/international war,
leading to disruption of economies, displacement,
and potential humanitarian crises This refers to
situations where governments are weak or absent,
leading to opportunities for terrorism, organized
crime, and other threats This can involve clashes
between groups with differing values, interests
, or identities, potentially leading to social unrest
and conflict
scarcity (e.g., water), inequality, and lack of
access to basic services can contribute to
conflict and instability State Threats:
Actions by foreign governments or their
proxies that undermine the security of a country,including cyberattacks,
disinformation campaigns, and economic
coercion. Consequences:Conflict and
instability can have devastating
consequences, including displacement, loss
of life, economic damage, and long-term
social and political repercussions Often,
conflicts occur because people make
assumptions about others' views and needs,
and put< their desire to be right over the
value of developing trusting relationships
and solving problems.
and present has generated unprecedented global temperature increases. The ecological and social
consequences of this are already being witnessed, with drought, flooding and storms precipitating
crop shortages, patterns of environmental migration and conflict over resources (see IPCC, 2018).
At the same time, governments are locked into a global economic system that must, by its very
nature, achieve year-on-year growth on a physically finite planet. Engendering a multiplicity of
environmental harms and crimes, many of which are unprecedented in scope and scale, the situation
is stark and the issues pressing. The need for criminology to cast its attention over these increasing
concerns, in a serious and sustained manner, is now greater than ever.
Climate change is, however, just one of many contemporary environmental issues. These have long
since been a focal point for criminologists, but it is only since the mid-1990s that their study has
been gathered under the label ‘green criminology’. As a sub-field, its concerns include a wide range
of crimes, harms and mechanisms for their control. These include a variety of issues, ranging from
wildlife trafficking, animal rights abuses and state-corporate land grabs, through to the victimisation
of indigenous peoples, environmental injustices and the consequences wrought by extractives
industries. Such a broad remit encompasses anthropocentric, eco-centric and bio-centric positions,
from scholarship spanning an assortment of disciplines, including law, sociology, politics and
economics, to name a few. Informed by its radical origins, much of Green Criminology relies on
‘harm’ instead of ‘crime’ when identifying its targets for analysis. Drawing from well-rehearsed
arguments rooted in more traditional critical criminology, this approach recognises that many of
the most environmentally destructive activities are actually legal.unacknowledged and
unquestioned assumptions to enter the field. We argue these assumptions have rendered green criminology’s use of harm as highly acritical, and restricted its analytical potential to explain and tackle pressing environmental problems. In this paper, we draw out this critique before calling on the social constructionist literatures of deviance and social problems to establish a research agenda for constructionist green criminology. Using the environmental issues of urban air quality and waterway pollution, we detail several ways in which constructionist thought can equip green criminology with the tools needed to expand the discipline’s analytical potential and more effectively respond to the climate crisis.
