Critical Thinking

Thinking critically as a student provides benefits in many areas of your life. Critical thinking skills are a vital part of your academic life –when reading, when writing and when working with other students.

 You probably already use critical thinking skills in domestic decision-making or at work – for example, when you’re choosing car insurance or assessing how to move forward in a project. Now you need to transfer these skills to academic life. This booklet shows you how to do that effectively.

What is critical thinking?

Critical thinking means to examine ideas, evaluate them against what you already know and make decisions about their merit. The aim of critical thinking is to try to maintain an ‘objective’ position weighing up all sides of an argument – and then you can evaluate its strengths and weaknesses. So, critical thinking skills entail:

  • actively seeking all sides of an argument
  • testing the soundness of the claims made
  • testing the soundness of the evidence used to support the claims.

Because your aim is to be objective, you need to keep an open mind and be prepared to question the author’s claims.

How you do this and the questions you ask will vary depending on what, and why, you’re reading (for example, you might be responding to an assignment question). As a result, you must always be prepared to adapt your approach according to the demands of the material.

As you read through your module materials you’ll pick up some of the terminology that Open University academics use to communicate the objectiveness of their reasoning.

 Pinpoint the words they use to indicate a balanced approach to the topic. For example, you’ll notice that phrases such as: ‘there is evidence to suggest that’ ‘tends to’ and ‘it can be argued that’ convey a certain amount of restraint. Look out for other examples of phrases you can use in your own writing

Part2

Why is critical thinking so important? For an author, academic writing means being able to defend an argument against charges such as bias, lack of supporting evidence or incompleteness. Critical thinking enables you as a reader to assess the evidence in what you’re reading and identify spurious or illogical reasoning.

Thinking critically also helps you to create strong arguments in your own writing (e.g. in assignments). This means you’ll be able to present and justify any claims you make based on the evidence you’ve evaluated.

If you learn and practise effective critical thinking skills early on in your studies with the OU, they’ll contribute at many levels in your academic life. When reading, you’ll understand the content of your module more clearly.

You’ll be able to analyse and evaluate compare the value of theories, methods, concepts and major debates. Critical thinking skills allow you to develop more reasoned arguments for your assignments, projects and exam questions.

You’ll be able to draw on evidence to justify your own arguments and ideas. In addition, you’ll be able to synthesise your thoughts with the thoughts of theorists or researchers and those of the module materials authors

Being an independent learner

All universities encourage their students to be independent learners, and critical thinking skills are central to this. You show you’re an independent learner when you analyse, evaluate and synthesise information from a variety of sources and present your own justified interpretation.

This is known as employing higher order thinking skills. There may be some activities during your study that don’t require critical thinking. For example, some multiple-choice questions might test your knowledge and understanding of your topic.

Part3

 However, essay and report-style assignments frequently demand interpretation and synthesis skills to analyse and manipulate information, rather than just memorise it. In the 1950s, Benjamin Bloom identified a set of important study and thinking skills for university students, which he called the thinking triangle.

These higher order thinking skills are the same as critical thinking skills. They’ll help you in both your reading and writing and enable you to work effectively as an independent learner. They’ll also, as you’ll see in Section 4, help you to work with others in a constructive way.

As with any new skills you develop, it may take some time to become comfortable with thinking critically about what you read and write. However, the more you practise the better you’ll become. In this section you’ll learn how to read using critical thinking skills. Using enquiry-based learning

As an independent learner you must be willing to reflect on what you’re doing and how you’re progressing. You won’t exercise your critical thinking skills by listening or reading passively, you need to engage actively with the subject matter.

You can do this by asking appropriate questions of the material, investigating solutions to any problems, creating new understanding as a result and then reflecting on what you’ve gained. This is called enquiry-based learning. Taking a reflective, enquiry-based approach to your study helps you delve deeper into the materials you read . It requires you to keep an open mind, ask questions and reflect upon the answers.

In some study disciplines, critical thinking is used in the formal evaluation or construction of an ‘argument’. Knowing what constitutes an argument helps you identify what’s happening when someone makes an inadequate argument. What is an ‘argument’?

Part6

A process for thinking critically The aim of critical thinking is to maintain an objective position. This means that you should try to be aware of any preconceptions you have that might skew the way you think about an argument. As you read, check your understanding and revisit sections if you’re unsure of their meaning.

Although there’s no one right way of thinking critically, you’ll find it useful to get some basic tasks done before moving on to an evaluation of any material. Try the following three steps.

  1. Identify the thrust of the information.
  2. Analyse the material.
  3. Compare and apply the information. Identify the thrust of the information

First, identify the general thrust of the argument within the information you’re reading. At this stage you’re simply trying to define and be aware of the subject matter. Try to identify the:

  • main points of the argument
  • claims being made
  • evidence used
  • conclusions reached

Part8

Coherence

Being able to identify when an argument is valid (i.e. that the claims made support the conclusions drawn adequately and justifiably) is vital.

  • Check the line of reasoning – is it coherent and logical? Are there any flaws in its progression?
  • Look at the conclusions drawn – are they supported adequately by the claims made throughout the argument? Are they valid and do they make sense?
  • Have the authors justified their claims by supporting them with acceptable sources of evidence?
  • Are any assumptions made and, if so, are they acceptable?
  • Have all alternative claims been considered? Is there any bias in the claims and supporting arguments?
  • Is there any indication that a claim made is merely the author’s opinion rather than based on evidence?
  • Does the claim make sense when compared to the evidence used?

Supporting evidence, You also need to evaluate the evidence you’ve been presented with to establish its worth, in its own right and when compared with other evidence (see Figure 4).

  • Does the evidence support all the claims made – is it comprehensive?
  • Is the evidence appropriate to the topic?
  • Is the evidence recent and is that important for your purposes?
  • How does this evidence compare with that provided by other people: does it conflict with other evidence? Is it complementary to other evidence? Does it coexist, adding something extra to the topic?
  • Are there any methodological issues about the collection of evidence that might affect its usefulness?

Part10

You can approach the question by:

  • checking the notes that accompany the question in the assignment booklet
  • splitting the question into bite-sized chunks
  • looking closely at the ‘process words’ in the assignment title allowing some time to plan before you start writing, and then some time to review what you’ve written afterwards

• making sure that you keep to the question set by referring to it as you write

Part4

An argument in this context has four basic elements: (i) a claim, (ii)evidence, (iii) a warrant and (iv) any qualifications to the argument that might be necessary (see Figure 3). The nature of the argument made determines the exact form in which these elements appear.

This is based on the Toulmin system of argumentation, developed during the 1950s (Toulmin, 1958), which has since been updated and adapted (Booth et al., 1995).

The claim: this is the point that’s being made; what is being argued for. When you read your module materials, ask yourself if it’s relevant to your current needs (i.e. can you use it in your assignment, is it an important addition to your general knowledge of the subject?).

The evidence: this is the grounds on which the claim is made. It might be data from a study or a quote or reference to someone else’s published work. You’ll hear it referred to as the supporting evidence. The evidence needs to fully support the claim being made or, if it doesn’t, its weaknesses need to be acknowledged and dealt with in some way (for example, by ‘qualifications’).

The warrant: this is the general principle that forms the bridge between the claim and the evidence it’s based on. It is logical reasoning that connects the evidence to the claim. Qualifications: these are concessions that may have to be made within an argument that limit what someone might be able to claim (see ‘evidence’ above).

Seeing what a badly constructed argument looks like can help you think about how you would have done it better. Examine the flawed argument below and think about why you might find it unconvincing. An example of a flawed argument Claim: I won’t have to work so hard if I go to my first tutorial

Evidence: OU statistics show that students who attend the first tutorial are more likely to pass the module. Warrant: The statistics say that attending the first tutorial makes you likely to pass the module. I will attend the tutorial and feel confident that that will secure me success Qualifications: I need to ensure that the tutor notices that I’ve attended

Part5

The example given above is a flawed argument. There are statistics that suggest students who attend the first tutorial are more likely to pass the module and this feels factual. However, be careful of attaching a cause-and-effect relationship to this. For example, ‘attending tutorials = success’.

The qualification reveals that the writer believes that mere attendance secures success. This makes the argument imbalanced because it hasn’t explored adequately other reasons why the association between success and attending the first tutorial exists.

 Is it likely that, given the aim of university education to produce students who can discuss a subject authoritatively with their peers, merely showing up at a classroom will ensure those students pass?

No … it’s more likely that attendance provides an opportunity to listen to and think about useful discussions and explanations Attendance doesn’t guarantee good marks.

So, the warrant doesn’t link the evidence logically to the claim being made. To think about this argument critically, you would ask the following questions.

  • What else contributes to success?
  • What are the characteristics of students who attend tutorials? For example, do they have more time to study and is this the factor that gives them the edge?
  • What is it about tutorials that may make a difference? Could this be achieved another way?

Part7

Analyse the material As you read, think about whether the material is relevant to your needs. Here are some questions that might help in your analysis.

  • Does the information make sense in relation to other theories and research? Where in the broader picture does this argument sit?
  • How old is the material?
  • Is the material clear or do you need to find additional information to aid your understanding?
  • Can you identify any implications that might require you to look for other material? (Perhaps complementary explanations of a phenomenon if the original material is not comprehensive enough.)
  • Does the argument present a balanced view, or is the author disregarding some aspects in order to put forward a particular argument?

Compare and apply information

  • Assignment questions often ask you to apply theories, principles or formulae to situations. The process of trying to apply what you’re learning can help you to build your understanding of the subject. Try looking for:
  • the implications of one piece of information for another
  • weaknesses that might be revealed when you apply the idea to areal-life situation
  • a lack of coverage; does the theory or formula only go so far, and do you need to draw upon another theory or principle to complete our understanding of something?

How to evaluate an argument When you evaluate academic material such as a journal article, you’re aiming to form a judgement on the validity of the argument presented. You can do this by looking at:

  • the coherence of the argument
  • the supporting evidence.

Part9

Taking notes critically Being able to express your powers of critical thinking begins with the notes that you take during your module. Notetaking is an important stage in understanding what you’re reading. You may find that the very act of writing your notes helps you to distil your understanding.

The questions you ask yourself as you take notes depend on the nature of the materials and what you’re trying to achieve. Aim for logical, objective interpretation of the argument you’re presented with.

When it comes to presenting arguments in your assignments, you need to be able to defend your point of view against charges such as bias, lack of supporting evidence, incompleteness and illogical reasoning.

Using critical thinking when you take notes from module materials in the first place, and then rigorously employing it when you construct your own line of argument in your assignments, helps you avoid these problems.

Thinking Critically15Figure 5 demonstrates how you might structure your notetaking. Use this example as inspiration to create your own template. You may, for example, want to add a category such as ‘useful quotes.

Remember, the questions you bear in mind as you read do change according to the nature of the subject matter or your aims. So take the categories used in Figure 5 as examples that you can change to suit your purposes.

Not only do you have to read with a critical eye, but you must also be able to express your ideas in a critical way. This means that your writing must demonstrate your understanding of the significance of an argument or perspective, the relevance of evidence and the strength of conclusions made. How to approach to the question

Unless told otherwise, you’re generally expected to draw upon your module materials for evidence when answering assignments and exam questions. As with your reading, you should try to engage actively with the assignment question and its required content. Again, you must apply a critical-thinking approach.

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